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    • Synthetic cannabinoids

    The rise of synthetic cannabinoids in Australia is a growing public health concern.[1]

    Document: Mini Bulletin: Synthetic Cannabinoids

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    Resource: Synthetic Cannabinoids Infographic

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    Close up: synthetic cannabis

    Synthetic cannabinoids first started being used in Europe in 2004, before spreading to other parts of the world, including the United States, New Zealand and Australia.2

    Synthetic cannabinoids form part of the broader category of new psychoactive substances (NPS) – new drugs created in illegal laboratories that try to copy the effects of established drugs.2

    Manufacturers of NPS drugs will often try to develop them using ‘legal’ chemicals, and will constantly swap out old chemicals for new ones to try and stay ahead of the law.3

    The number of synthetic cannabinoid products has continued to increase, with more than 280 unique substances discovered between 2009 and 2019.4

    1. Darke S, Duflou J, Farrell M, Peacock A, Lappin J.Characteristics and circumstances of synthetic cannabinoid-related death. Clinical Toxicology [Internet]. 2020 [18.10.2021]; 58(5):[368-74 pp.].
    2. Dwyer J, Jamieson A. Coronial investigation into the death of Mr P - Annexure 1: Victorian deaths involving the synthetic cannabinoid Cumyl-PeGACLONE. Southbank: Coroners Court of Victoria; 2020.
    3. Bright S. Not for human consumption: new and emerging drugs in Australia. What do clinicians, allied health and youth workers, researchers and policy makers need to know? Melbourne: Alcohol and Drug Foundation; 2013.
    4. Darke S, Banister S, Farrell M, Duflou J, Lappin J. ‘Synthetic cannabis’: A dangerous misnomer. International Journal of Drug Policy [Internet]. 2021 [20.10.2021]; 98:[103396 p.]. Available from:
    5. Aizpurua-Olaizola O, Elezgarai I, Rico-Barrio I, Zarandona I, Etxebarria N, Usobiaga A. Targeting the endocannabinoid system: future therapeutic strategies. Drug Discovery Today. 2017;22(1):105-10.
    6. Positive Choices. Synthetic Cannabinoids: Factsheet 2021 [19.10.2021].
    7. National Drug & Alcohol Research Centre (NDARC). New (and emerging) Psychoactive Substances (NPS): NDARC fact sheet. Sydney: UNSW; 2016.
    8. PsychonautWiki. Synthetic cannabinoid 2020 [30.11.2021].
    9. National Institute on Drug Abuse. Synthetic Cannabinoids (K2/Spice) DrugFacts 2020 [30.11.2021].
    10. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. National Drug Strategy Household Survey 2019. Canberra: AIHW; 2020.
    11. Guerin N, White V. ASSAD 2017 Statistics & Trends: Australian Secondary Students’ Use of Tobacco, Alcohol, Over-the-counter Drugs, and Illicit Substances. Centre for Behavioural Research in Cancer: Cancer Council Victoria; 2020.
    12. Australian Institute of Health and Welfare. Alcohol, tobacco & other drugs in Australia 2021 [updated 22 July 2021.
    13. Cohen K, Weinstein AM. Synthetic and Non-synthetic Cannabinoid Drugs and Their Adverse Effects-A Review From Public Health Prospective. Front Public Health [Internet]. 2018 [18.10.2021]; 6:[162- pp.].
    14. Morrison P. 02. Understanding Cannabis in Psychiatry: Pharmacology and Synthetic Cannabinoids: Psychopharmacology Institute; 2017 [27.10.2021].
    15. Altintas M, Inanc L, Oruc GA, Arpacioglu S, Gulec H. Clinical characteristics of synthetic cannabinoid-induced psychosis in relation to schizophrenia: a single-center cross-sectional analysis of concurrently hospitalized patients. Neuropsychiatr Dis Treat [Internet]. 2016 [21.10.2021]; 12:[1893-900 pp.].
    16. Cohen K, Kapitány-Fövény M, Mama Y, Arieli M, Rosca P, Demetrovics Z, et al. The effects of synthetic cannabinoids on executive function. Psychopharmacology [Internet]. 2017 [21.10.2021]; 234(7):[1121-34 pp.].
    17. Weinstein AM, Rosca P, Fattore L, London ED. Synthetic Cathinone and Cannabinoid Designer Drugs Pose a Major Risk for Public Health. Frontiers in Psychiatry [Internet]. 2017 [21.10.2021]; 8(156).
    18. McIlroy G, Ford L, Khan JM. Acute myocardial infarction, associated with the use of a synthetic adamantyl-cannabinoid: a case report. BMC Pharmacology and Toxicology [Internet]. 2016 [21.10.2021]; 17(1):[2 p.].
    19. Kassai S, Pintér JN, Rácz J, Böröndi B, Tóth-Karikó T, Kerekes K, et al. Assessing the experience of using synthetic cannabinoids by means of interpretative phenomenological analysis. Harm Reduction Journal [Internet]. 2017 [20.10.21]; 14(1):[9 p.].
    20. Vandrey R, Dunn KE, Fry JA, Girling ER. A survey study to characterize use of Spice products (synthetic cannabinoids). Drug and Alcohol Dependence [Internet]. 2012 [20.10.2021]; 120(1):[238-41 pp.].
    21. Gunderson EW, Haughey HM, Ait-Daoud N, Joshi AS, Hart CL. A Survey of Synthetic Cannabinoid Consumption by Current Cannabis Users. Substance Abuse [Internet]. 2014 [27.10.2021]; 35(2):[184-9 pp.].
    22. Vicroads. Drug testing 2018 [27.20.2021].
    23. Cohen K, Mama Y, Rosca P, Pinhasov A, Weinstein A. Chronic Use of Synthetic Cannabinoids Is Associated With Impairment in Working Memory and Mental Flexibility. Frontiers in Psychiatry [Internet]. 2020 [22.10.2021]; 11(602).
    24. Vallersnes OM. Psychosis associated with acute recreational drug toxicity: a European case series. BMC Psychiatry [Internet]. 2016 [21.10.2021]; 16(1):[1 p.].
    25. Arciniegas DB. Psychosis. Continuum (Minneap Minn). 2015;21(3 Behavioral Neurology and Neuropsychiatry):715-36.
    26. Niesink RJM, van Laar M. Does Cannabidiol Protect Against Adverse Psychological Effects of THC? Frontiers in Psychiatry. 2013;4(130).
    27. Davidson C, Opacka-Juffry J, Arevalo-Martin A, Garcia-Ovejero D, Molina-Holgado E, Molina-Holgado F. Chapter Four - Spicing Up Pharmacology: A Review of Synthetic Cannabinoids From Structure to Adverse Events. 2017. In: Advances in Pharmacology [Internet]. Academic Press; [135-68].
    28. Khan M. Catatonia secondary to synthetic cannabinoid use in two patients with no previous psychosis. American Journal on Addictions, The [Internet]. 2016 [22.10.2021]; 25(1):[25 p.].
    29. Castaneto MS, Gorelick DA, Desrosiers NA, Hartman RL, Pirard S, Huestis MA. Synthetic cannabinoids: Epidemiology, pharmacodynamics, and clinical implications. Drug and Alcohol Dependence [Internet]. 2014 [22.10.2021]; 144:[12-41 pp.].
    30. Barceló B, Pichini S, López-Corominas V, Gomila I, Yates C, Busardò FP, et al. Acute intoxication caused by synthetic cannabinoids 5F-ADB and MMB-2201: A case series. Forensic Science International [Internet]. 2017 [22.10.2021]; 273:[e10-e4 pp.]. Available from:
    31. KFx Learning Of Substance. Drug Facts: Synthetic Cannabinoids [22.10.2021].
    32. Community Action Youth and Drugs (CAYAD). Young people and synthetic cannabinoid drugs: A snapshot of young Aucklander’s thoughts and experiences around synthetic cannabinoid drugs. Te Kaunihera o Tāmaki Makaurau (Auckland Council); 2018.

    Last updated: 29 May 2024